The post compulsory education sector has had a long association with professional bodies. In many cases the professional bodies preceded the implementation of formal tertiary programmes. In some cases it was the professional bodies that developed the initial course programmes and oversaw their introduction. In some disciplines this link has been maintained and it has flourished. Medicine is an excellent example of the close involvement of professional bodies, in particular the Colleges such as the Royal Australian College of Pathologists, with the post compulsory education sector (Baldwin, 1994). In other areas, there is a perception that academic independence is being threatened by ever increasing demands by professional bodies leading to a narrowing of focus in some courses, as academics struggle to accommodate new knowledge areas (Baldwin, 1991). It is timely to examine the influence that these professional bodies actually exert and the mechanisms involved. Is it appropriate? Is it having effects on the higher education system that are inappropriate or unforeseen? What are the benefits? Professional bodies are most strident in promoting their respective professions, but many are now starting to conceptualise themselves in the context of life long learning generally (Otala, 1994). The many submissions and replies to the West Review of Higher Education by professional bodies is evidence of this. Appendix 2 of the Learning for Life - Final Report lists twenty seven separate submissions by professional bodies (West, 1998).

Professional bodies in Australia and elsewhere are generally organisations that act as an intellectual and professional link between members of a particular profession (Markkula, 1995). Trade union type organisations are mainly concerned with issues such as enterprise bargaining, workplace agreements and other immediate working conditions. Some professional bodies developed from networks of professionals or guilds which fulfilled a need for social contact at a professional level. Professional bodies will take a stand in matters such as education and training, professional skills, policy matters and social issues. They therefore take a particular interest in professional education within the higher education sector. As changes occur in the workplace, particularly those relating to the rapid and ever accelerating increase in knowledge it is evident that initial education and learning on the job are no longer sufficient to maintain professional competence. Professional bodies have long been active in continuing professional education activities, but are responding to increasing demands from their members as their job tasks change and evolve by becoming more widely focused to look after the professional interests of their members.

Professional bodies are concerned primarily with the education, promotion, and management of their respective professions. For example, the Royal Australian Institute of Architects (RAIA) was formed with the following aims:

. To advance architecture

. To maintain the integrity and standing of the profession

. To promote the profession’s views nationally and internationally, and

. To encourage the study of architecture.

The RAIA also actively lobbies to maintain and improve the quality of the built environment (RAIA, 1997). This organisation is typical of how professional bodies perceive their mission. The key stakeholders in professional bodies are the practitioners of their respective professions. Most of these societies however also make provision for student membership, and a wider base of non professional membership as relevant for their profession. For example the Australian Institute of Medical Scientists (AIMS), has the following categories of membership: Life, Fellow, Member, Associate, Intermediate, Affiliate Student and Retained. The wide membership categories are designed to promote the Institute through all levels of the profession. Professional bodies are committed to developing and maintaining standards and policies for education within their professions. Some of these organisations also see themselves as agents for contributing to social awareness and debate, and have a valid role in influencing government and industry policy decisions as it relates their sphere of interest (Markkula, 1995). "The role of professional organisations is to a large extent based on their importance in society - i.e. on how much they are heard in general in the decision making process" (Markkula, 1995, p. 233). A good example of this role is the Australian Medical Association (AMA). The AMA has a programme of progressive press releases which help to maintain its perceived importance in society. The AMA released eleven press releases in the month of August 1998. Topics of these press releases ranged from tobacco and taxes, to genetics and ethics (AMA, 1998). Increasingly, some of the professional bodies are widening their interests to regions outside Australia. The Institute of Chartered Accountants (ICAA), as do many professional bodies, sees the future directions of university education in Australia as of critical importance not only for the profession in Australian but for the promotion and maintenance of their profession in the Asia Pacific Region (ICAA, 1997).

Professional bodies generally require a university degree in a relevant discipline as a minimum qualification for full membership. It is not surprising then that professional bodies have a long and extensive involvement with the accreditation of courses undertaken in Australian universities. Professional bodies are also involved in the delivery of post graduate programs and continuing education programmes. Some professional bodies have also played a role in the accreditation of off-shore programmes by Australian Universities, and also market and deliver their own post graduate programmes overseas, particularly in Asia (ICAA, 1997). The undergraduate degree is seen as the beginning of a professional education, and the professional bodies see themselves as important agents in supporting change in prevailing values in society to support knowledge and life long learning processes (Markkula, 1995). Professional bodies therefore will expect to contribute to higher education on a broad policy basis, as well as within their profession on a more focused level. Professional bodies believe that they should have an input into education, research and training, undergraduate curriculum development, as well as education continuing throughout careers (AVA, 1997).

The most overt mechanism by which professional bodies influence higher education is by course accreditation. Professional bodies have a developed core of knowledge and have documented minimum requirements for assessing curricula and the suitability of universities to deliver programmes. The universities regard professional accreditation as important in promoting their programmes and have accommodated the accreditation processes despite some individual perceptions that the process is a challenge to academic freedom. Some professional bodies also see a valid role in professional accreditation in other disciplines if there is a significant component of their professional education in that programme. The Australian Computer Society (ACS) in particular, is proactive in this widening accreditation role (ACS, 1997). Professional bodies see the congruence between higher education, the professions and industry as necessary if course curricula are to remain relevant in a rapidly changing society. Many academics are encouraged to participate as active members in the professional societies. This also helps place and reinforce the professional bodies in the higher education environment in more subtle ways.

Lobbying is seen as an important activity in promoting members interests. Lobbying may be long term, for example in influencing Government policy, particularly education policies, or be short term or even reactionary such as press releases on topical issues (Marshall, 1995). Submissions to Government reviews are an example of this process. The many submissions to the review of Higher Education Financing and Policy are a typical example (West, 1998). These submissions contribute to the debate, provide a balance to the higher education sector generally, and will have some impact on ultimate policy. Many university courses have course advisory panels or boards. In fact, many course accreditation requirements by professional bodies stipulate that the course must have an advisory board or panel and outline the type of representatives that should comprise the board (Buchanan, 1997). Members of these panels are by definition active members of their professions and will often also be active members of their respective professional organisations. The professional bodies can therefore exert influence on course programmes through these committees, although this is generally an indirect influence. Professional bodies also have their own national education committees. These committees are generally expert panels of academics and practitioners that advise their national executives on education matters.

Many of the professional bodies also have systems in place to acknowledge their members professional or continuing educational activities. These schemes may be compulsory when linked with ongoing registration (e.g. medicine), or may be voluntary. An example of a voluntary scheme is the Australian Professional Acknowledgment of Continuing Education (APACE) scheme conducted by the AIMS. Under this scheme members record their continuing education activities, and providing they meet the minimum activity requirements are rewarded with a certificate and means of demonstrating their commitment to professional continuing education to peers and employers (AIMS, 1997). Provision is made in this scheme for recognition of employment in the profession, including employment as an academic in professional education. Most professional bodies run similar schemes. This again helps reinforce links between the professional bodies and higher education.

Other activities that have some influence on higher education include joint consultancies on research and professional educational activities. A good example of this is the Bachelor of Business Information Systems at the University of Adelaide (Watts, 1994). In the paper on this programme Watts concludes that "in addition to satisfying the needs of industry and students, the University has recognised the benefits that come from being a cooperative education partner" (Watts, 1994, p. 114). The influence that these activities have is mutually beneficial and in fact there are opportunities for the higher education sector to increase its participation in post graduate education by cooperation with professional bodies. Some professional bodies carry out administrative processes on behalf of government departments. For example the AIMS assesses overseas qualifications in medical science for immigration applicants. This is another mechanism whereby professional bodies exert some influence on the maintenance of professional standards. Most professional bodies also conduct conferences and meetings. Many of these may have a national, or even international focus. Most professional bodies incorporate a session on education within their profession as part of the conference programme. This provides a forum for academics to present their research as it relates to their respective profession and education, provides an opportunity for academics to discuss contemporary issues, and from the professional bodies point of view, confirm their presence in the academic sphere of influence. Professional bodies also have a role in the quality assurance processes of institutions of post compulsory education. They are an important stakeholder in the process.

The professional bodies see as paramount their focus on professional education. They can be very influential in relation to particular issues, especially where highly specialised or technical knowledge is required (Marshall, 1995). The quality of graduates from the universities has a direct effect on the quality of the profession. Professional bodies exert the greatest pressure through course accreditation processes and, left unfettered, will result in furthering narrowing of course subject material. Professional bodies will often take a narrow, professional related view on issues that may well be different in emphasis and direction than employers (Watts, 1994). It is important then that course accreditation programmes be a balance between professional requirements, employer perceptions and academic realities. Professional bodies often take a parochial view to education. If there is any doubt on this point peruse submissions from professional bodies on educational matters. Many of the submissions from professional bodies to the West Report address the issues only in terms of their own particular narrow professional perspective (West , 1998). Professional bodies see education specifically as relates to their professions and react to educational issues in these terms.

Increasingly however, there are examples of an enlightened appreciation of wider contemporary issues from some professional bodies. The narrow focus in some contexts is changing, the realisation of their role of some of the professional bodies in the lifelong learning process is a manifestation of this, and is leading to an expansion in the activities of the professional bodies. The Institute of Chartered Accountants in Australia (ICAA) in its submission to the West Review of Higher Education clearly articulated that professional education is a partnership between tertiary institutions and the accounting profession (ICAA, 1997). They also argued that as they have made a substantial investment in the process of accreditation of university education that they would strongly resist any attempt to downgrade accounting education particularly if on the misleading arguments that the area is vocational in orientation. The more enlightened professions generally argue that specialist technical knowledge needs to be balanced by broad perspectives on society, and are prepared to do something about it.

The body of literature that examines the question specifically is limited. This is surprising as there is an anecdotal perception amongst academics that professional bodies may have too much influence. At a recent faculty of science meeting comment was passed as to why a particular course should be accredited by a certain professional body. Some of the academics present felt that they were more than capable of maintaining the course at the appropriate standard, and they considered the involvement of the professional body was an interference to their academic freedom (Dow, 1998). A review of the literature however suggests that professional bodies do indeed have a substantial influence but this influence is generally positive (Browell, 1997; Markkula, 1995; Marshall 1995; Otala, 1994). The influence of the professional bodies on course curricula has helped to keep courses relevant, but there is an ever increasing perception that because of a narrowing of focus (an increase in specialisation), graduates need more opportunities to develop life long learning skills such as critical evaluation, flexibility and communication (Aulich, 1990). Discipline reviews such as the accreditation process established by the Australian Medical Council for faculties of Medicine is evidence that this process of narrowing focus need not necessarily be the outcome. This accreditation process very successfully relates the needs of the general community to medical graduates, and the professional requirements. (Baldwin, 1994). This needs to be addressed in the formulation of course programmes. It may be necessary to radically overhaul the present traditional course structures of three or four year professional degrees with a general undergraduate programme and post graduate professional specialisation - one, two or even more years. This has occurred recently with the introduction of the post graduate medicine courses. It would seem that the health sciences may too follow this path. Brooks (1998) said recently "With the successful implementation of graduate medical courses around the country, thought should be given to the development of graduate or, at least, lateral entry courses in all of the health sciences" (p. 40).

Cooperation with professional bodies is necessary if higher education is to maintain its relevance and coherence. Academics generally have infrequent contact with employers. There is a danger however, of universities being too accommodating to the demands and view points of professional bodies in line with economic rationalist motives. Examples of the type of demands are requests to restrict or even expand student numbers, suggestions as to curriculum content which may lead to increasing specialisation of subject material, and pressure to lengthen or change course structures. Internationalisation of education programmes will also increase the potential for professional bodies to be more demanding as overseas students (graduates to be) take course accreditation by the national professional body as an important factor in their course selection.

Professional bodies themselves should take stock of their activities. The most important factor in improving professional competence is to motivate the professional to develop and to provide the resources for such development. The failure of some educational institutions to enter the continuing education field is providing some businesses with entrepreneurial opportunities at the expense of increased growth within the education institutions themselves (Weimer, 1988). The volume of new knowledge added each year to different disciplines means that in a few years professionals in those disciplines may be obsolete. Academics alone cannot monitor workplace developments and professional requirements. A cooperative effort between professional bodies and academics must be undertaken with strategies for the provision of life long learning as a practice and as a culture. Markkula (1995) said "professional organisations must modernise the ways they work and increase their reaction speed" (p. 234). Activities need to clearly identified and prioritised.

The answer to the question posed as the title "Do professional bodies have too much influence in higher education?" needs qualification. The short answer on the available evidence is no. But there is some evidence that this influence is increasing, in line with the entrepreneurial focus of the higher education sector. Further research could be undertaken to monitor this interaction between professional bodies and higher education and to suggest ways that this interaction can be properly directed to favourable outcomes for the student, the professions, the higher education sector and society. Some specific questions that could be examined in more depth are reviewing joint professional education programmes with a view of establishing mechanisms for improving their relevancy and utility. A major project could be researching the benefits and disadvantages of moving to post graduate professional programmes, analysing the perspectives from different professions point of view. It would also be worthwhile to research the involvement professional bodies have in course curricula development, and to develop models for successful implementation of course improvement processes.

References:

ACS (Australian Computer Society) (1997) Submission to the Review of Higher Education Financing and Policy, Canberra.

AIMS (Australian Institute of Medical Scientists) (1997) Australian Professional Acknowledgment of Continuing Education: Members Guidelines and Application Form, Brisbane.

AMA (Australian Medical Association) (1998) Press Releases [Web document], http://domino.ama.com.au/DIR0103/MediaRel.nsf/Media+At+Web (28/9/98)

Aulich, T (Chair) (1990) Priorities for Reform in Higher Education, Report of the Senate Standing Committee on Employment, Education and Training, AGPS, Canberra.

AVA (The Australian Veterinary Association Ltd) (1997) Submission to the Review of Higher Education Financing and Policy, Canberra.

Baldwin, G. (1994) The Student as Customer: The Discourse of "Quality" in Higher Education. Journal of Tertiary Education Administration,16:125-133.

Baldwin, P. (1991). Higher Education: Quality and Diversity in the 1990’s. (Canberra, AGPS).

Brooks, P. (1998, Sep 9) Future shock for our health. Australian, September 9, p. 40.

Browell, S. (1997) Staff development in professional education - cooperation in a competitive environment. Industry and Higher Education, December, 383-387.

Buchanan, W. and Bostwick, W. (1997). Effective use of industrial advisory boards. Industry and Higher Education, August , 236-238.

Dow, R. (1998). Personal observation. Faculty of Science Meeting, February.

ICAA (The Institute of Chartered Accountants in Australia) (1997) Submission to the Review of Higher Education Financing and Policy, Canberra.

Markkula, M. (1995). The role of professional organizations in developing systems for lifelong learning. Industry and Higher Education, August, pp.227-235.

Marshall, N. (1995) Policy communities, issue networks and the formulation of Australian higher education policy. Higher Education, 30: 273-293.

Otala, L. (1994). Implementing lifelong learning through industry - university partnership. Industry and Higher Education, December, 201-207.

RAIA (Royal Australian Institute of Architects) (1997) Submission to the Review of Higher Education Financing and Policy, Canberra.

Watts, D. (1994) Letting industry hold the reins. BIS: an industry-driven model of cooperative education. Industry and Higher Education, June, 107-114.

Weimer, W (1988) Planning for lifelong education - cooperation between industry and education in continuing education. Industry and Higher Education, June, 91-97.

West, R. (1998) Learning for life - final report. Review of higher education, Financing and Policy. (Canberra, AGPS).

[HOME]